In the Odyssey, the words ‘“And after him I
recognized (Ton de met’ eisenoȇsa)” point
back at Sisyphus; in Socrates’ narrative in the Protagoras these words point back to Protagoras and his entourage, the
depiction of which has nothing to do with the underworld scene in the Odyssey: ‘When we came in (Epeidȇ de eisȇlthomen) we found
Protagoras (katelabomen Prȏtagoran)
walking in the colonnade (en tȏi
prostȏiȏi peripatounta), and ranged on one side of him were (hexȇs d’ autȏi sumperiepatoun ek men tou epi
thatera) Callias the son of Hipponicus (Kallias
ho Hipponikou) and his half-brother (kai
ho adelphos autou ho homomȇtrios) Paralus the son of Pericles (Paralos ho Perikleous) and Charmides the
son of Glaucon (kai Charmides ho
Glaukȏnos), and on the other (ek de
tou epi thatera) Pericles’ other son Xanthippus (ho heteros tou Perikleous Xanthippos, 314e3-315a3) … Those who were
following them (toutȏn de hoi opisthen
ȇkolouthoun) listening (epakouontes)
to the conversation (tȏn legomenȏn)
seemed mostly to be foreigners (to men
polu xenoi ephainonto) – Protagoras collects them from every city (hous agei ex hekastȏn tȏn poleȏn ho
Prȏtagoras) he passes through (di’
hȏn diexerchetai), charming them (kȇlȏn) with his voice (tȇi phȏnȇi) like Orpheus (hȏsper Orpheus), and they (hoi de) follow the sound of his voice (kata tȇn phȏnȇn hepontai) quite
spellbound (kekȇlȇmenoi, 315a5-b1, tr. C. C. W. Taylor). If Socrates on
entering Callias’ house saw himself as stepping into the underworld, he must
have had in mind a different view of Hades than the one offered by Homer.
After seeing
Hippias, Socrates’ eyes fell on Prodicus, and to his mind came another quote
from the Odyssey: ‘”And then I saw
Tantalus too (Kai men dȇ kai Tantalon ge
eiseidon)”, for Prodicus of Ceos was also in town (epedȇmei gar ara kai Prodikos ho Keios, 315c8-d1).’ J. Adam and A.
M. Adam note that ‘Prodicus is compared to Tantalus because of his physical
wretchedness: see Crat. 395 E kai atechnȏs eoiken hȏsper an ei tis
boulomenos talantaton onomasai, apokruptomenos onomaseie kai eipoi ant’ ekeinou
Tantalon [Jowett translates: ‘You might imagine that some person who wanted
to call him talantatos (the most
weighed down by misfortune) disguised the name by altering it into Tantalus’].’
(Platonis Protagoras, Cambridge at
the University Press, 1971, p. 100, n. 1 on Ch. VII). And indeed, if we want to
understand why Socrates at seeing Prodicus was reminded of Odysseus’ seeing
Tantalus in the underworld, we must consult Socrates’ playful etymologizing in
the Cratylus. And I have little doubt
that if we are to understand Socrates’ view of Protagoras and his entourage as
part of the underworld scene, we must take into account the underworld depicted
in the Cratylus.
Socrates
begins his etymological analysis of Hades by considering the two very different
names given to him: ‘Pluto gives wealth, which comes out of the earth beneath (to de Ploutȏnos, touto men kata tȇn tou
ploutou dosin, hoti ek tȇs gȇs katȏthen anietai ho ploutos, epȏnomasthȇ).
People in general appear to imagine that the term Hades is connected with the invisible (ho de ‘Haidȇs,’ hoi polloi men moi dokousin hupolambanein to aїdes proseirȇsthai tȏi onomati toutȏi);
and since they fear this name (kai
phoboumenoi to onoma), they call the god Pluto instead (‘Ploutȏna’ kalousi auton).’ (Pl. Crat. 403a3-8, tr. B. Jowett)
***
Let me note
that the view adopted by ‘people in general’ (hoi polloi) concerning Hades is the view derived from Homer (or in
harmony with him, for it may go further back). Thus Circe tells Odysseus that
before embarking on his journey home he must first ‘reach the house of Aїdȇs [the Invisible]’ (hikesthai eis Aїdao domous, Hom. Od. X. 490-491). With the view derived
from the name of Haidȇs Socrates
challenged the Homeric view.
***
‘Hermogenes:
“And what is your own opinion (Soi de pȏs
phainetai), Socrates (ȏ Sȏkrates)?”
– Socrates: “I consider that men make various mistakes (Pollachȇi emoige dokousin anthrȏpoi diȇmartȇkenai) about the power
of this deity (peri toutou tou theou tȇs dunameȏs), and fear him without good
reason (kai phobeisthai auton ouk axion).
For example, they are afraid because, when a man is dead, he will be for ever
in that place (hoti te gar, epeidan hapax
tis hȇmȏn apothanȇi, aei ekei estin, phobountai); and they are afraid
because the soul denuded of the body
passes to him (kai hoti hȇ psuchȇ gumnȇ tou sȏmatos par’ ekeinon
aperchetai, kai touto pephobȇntai). (403b1-6, tr. Jowett)
***
When Circe
told Odysseus that he and his comrades must go to the house of Hades, it broke
his heart (autar emoi kateklasthȇ philon
ȇtor); he sat in their bed (he slept with Circe) crying (klaion d’ en lecheessi kathȇmenos); ‘my
heart did not want any more (oude nu moi
kȇr ȇthel’ eti) to live and see the light of the sun (zȏein kai horan phaos ȇelioio, Od.
X. 496-8). When Odysseus reached Hades, dug the ditch with his sword, filled it
with the blood of the sacrificial victims: ‘the multitude [of the dead] roamed
around the ditch (hoi polloi peri bothron
ephoitȏn) from different sides (allothen
allos) with tremendous clamour (thespesiȇi
iachȇi); and pale fear seized me (eme
de chlȏron deos hȇrei, Od. XI.
42-3)’.
I wonder
whether Socrates did not share a bit of the fright that seized Odysseus in the
realm of the dead – he speaks as Odysseus when he quotes him without naming him
– as he was entering Callias’ house. His delight at observing the decorum of
Protagoras’ admirers seems to have been a reaction to, and overcoming of, that
initial fright: ‘I was absolutely delighted by this procession (touton ton choron malista egȏge idȏn hȇsthȇn), to see how careful they
were (hȏs kalȏs ȇulabounto) that
nobody ever got in Protagoras’ way (mȇdepote
empodȏn en tȏi prosthen einai Prȏtagorou), but whenever he and his
companions turned round (all’ epeidȇ
autos anastrephoi kai hoi met’ ekeinou), those followers of his turned
smartly outwards in formation to left and right (eu pȏs kai en kosmȏi perieschizonto houtoi hoi epȇkooi enthen kai
enthen), wheeled round and so every time formed up in perfect order behind
him (kai en kuklȏi periiontes aei eis to
opisthen kathistanto kallista, 315b2-7, tr. C. C. W. Taylor).
Socrates and
Protagoras met before. Protagoras says in his closing entry: ‘I’ve said to many
people (pros pollous dȇ eirȇka) that
of all those I’ve met (hoti hȏn
entunchanȏ) I admire you far the best {polu
malista agamai se), especially of those of your age (tȏn men tȇlikoutȏn kai panu). And I declare (kai legȏ ge) that I should not be surprised (hoti ouk an thaumazoimi) if you became famous (ei tȏn ellogimȏn genoio andrȏn) for your wisdom (epi sophiai, Protagoras 361e2-5).’ But when Socrates decided to go to Callias’
house to question Protagoras’ wisdom, and to do so in front of the other two
great sophists and all their combined entourage, he was undertaking a
completely new venture, compared only to his challenging Zeno and Parmenides in
his early youth (For this see ‘Plato’s defence of Forms in the Parmenides’ on my website). That early
encounter with Parmenides ended with Socrates’ being reduced to not-knowing.
What gave Socrates the courage to challenge Protagoras as he did was the
awareness of his not-knowing, in which he remained stuck ever since his
encounter with Parmenides, and that in spite of his attempts to overcome it, of
which his discussion with Protagoras is the best example.
***
Socrates’
remark in the Cratylus that ‘people
are afraid because the soul denuded of the body passes to Hades’, pointed me to
the following scene in the Odyssey.
The phantom of Odysseus’ mother told her son that it was her longing for him
that brought her to her death (alla me
sos ge pothos … thumon apȇura, 202-3). Odysseus: ‘And so I wanted (autar egȏ g’ ethelon) to embrace the
soul of my deceased mother (mȇtros emȇs
psuchȇn heleein katatethnȇuȇs). Three times I strived (tris men ephormȇthȇn); my heart urged me to embrace her (heleein te me thumos anȏgei), three
times from my hands (tris de moi ek
cheirȏn) like a shadow (skiȇi ikelon)
or a dream (ȇ kai oneirȏi) she flew (eptat’, Od. XI. 204-9).’
***
Back to the Cratylus. Socrates: ‘But my belief is
that all is quite consistent, and that the office and the name of the god
really correspond (ta d’ emoi dokei panta
es t’auton ti sunteinein, kai hȇ archȇ tou theou kai to onoma).’ – Hermogenes:
‘Why, why is that (Pȏs dȇ)?’ –
Socrates: ‘I will tell you (egȏ soi erȏ)
my own opinion (ha ge moi phainetai);
but first, I should like to ask you which chain does any animal feel to be the
stronger? and which confines him more to the same spot, desire or necessity (eipe gar moi, desmos zȏiȏi hotȏioun hȏste
menein hopououn, poteros ischuroteros estin, anankȇ ȇ epithumia)? – Hermogenes: ‘Desire, Socrates, is stronger far (Polu diapherei, ȏ Sȏkrates, hȇ epithumia).’
– Socrates: ‘And do you not think that many a one would escape from Hades (Oiei oun ton Haidȇn ouk an pollous
ekpheugein), if he did not bind those who depart to him by the strongest of
chains (ei mȇ tȏi ischurotatȏi desmȏi
edei tous ekeise iontas) … And if by the strongest of chains, then by some
desire (Epithumiai ara tini autous, hȏs
eoike, dei, eiper tȏi megistȏi desmȏi dei) … And therefore by the greatest
desire (Tȇi megistȇi ara epithumiai tȏn
epithumiȏn dei autous), if the chain is to be the greatest (eiper mellei tȏi megistȏi desmȏi katechein)
… And is there any desire stronger (Estin
oun tis meizȏn epithumia) than the thought that you will be made better by
associating with another (ȇ hotan tis tȏi
sunȏn oiȇtai di’ ekeinon esesthai ameinȏn
anȇr)?’ – Hermogenes: ‘Certainly not (Ma
di’ oud hopȏstioun, ȏ Sȏkrates).’ (Pl. Crat.
403b7-d6, tr. Jowett)
***
Dramatically,
Cratylus is the dialogue that took
place the nearest to Socrates’ trial, imprisonment, and death, for it follows
his discussion with Euthyphro (see Cratylus
396d4-8), which Euthyphro suggested as he hastened away at the end of the Euthyphro (15e3-4); the Euthyphro took place in front of the
Office of the King where Socrates was summoned to face the charges of impiety
and of corrupting the youth of Athens raised against him by Meletus.
As I read
Socrates’ ‘And is there any desire stronger (Estin oun tis meizȏn epithumia)
than the thought that you will be made better by associating with another (ȇ hotan tis tȏi sunȏn oiȇtai di’ ekeinon esesthai ameinȏn anȇr)?’ and
Hermogenes’ ‘Certainly not (Ma di’ oud
hopȏstioun, ȏ Sȏkrates),’ I cannot help thinking that Hermogenes with his
desire to hear and learn everything Socrates had to say reminded the latter of
Hippocrates who knocked at his door just before daybreak, all because he
desired to better himself by ‘being with’ (sunȏn)
Protagoras. And is it too far-fetched to think that Protagoras on that occasion
appeared to Socrates as a caricature of Hades, just as Pericles appeared to the
contemporary writers of comedy as a caricature of Zeus? (See Plutarch’s ‘Life
of Pericles’, Ch. XIII. 4)
***
Socrates:
‘And is not that the reason, Hermogenes, why no one, who has been to him, is willing
to come back to us (Dia tauta ara phȏmen,
ȏ Hermogenes, oudena deuro ethelȇsai apelthein tȏn ekeithen)? Even the
Sirens, like the rest of the world, have been laid under his spells (oude autas tas Seirȇnas, alla katakekȇlȇsthai ekeinas te kai tous
allous pantas). Such a charm, as I imagine, is the God able to infuse into
his words (houtȏ kalous tinas, hȏs
eoiken, epistatai logous legein ho Haidȇs). And, according to this view, he
is the perfect and accomplished sophist
(kai estin, hȏs ek tou logou toutou, ho
theos teleos sophistȇs te), and the great benefactor (kai megas euergetȇs) of the inhabitants of the other world (tȏn par autȏi); and even to us who are
upon earth he sends from below exceeding blessings (hos ge kai tois enthade tosauta agatha aniȇsin). For he has much
more than he wants down there (houtȏ
polla autȏi ta perionta ekei estin); wherefore he is called Pluto (kai ton “Ploutȏna” apo toutou esche to onoma).
Note also (kai to au), that he will
have nothing to do with men while they are in the body (mȇ ethelein suneinai tois
anthrȏpois echousi ta sȏmata), but only when the soul is liberated from the
desires and evils of the body (alla tote sungignesthai, epeidan hȇ psuchȇ kathara
ȇi pantȏn tȏn peri to sȏma kakȏn kai epithumiȏn). Do you not think that
this marks him as a philosopher, who
is well aware that in their liberated state he can bind them with the desire of
virtue (ou philosophou dokei soi einai
kai eu entethumȇmenou hoti houtȏ men an katechoi autous dȇsas tȇi peri aretȇn epithumiai), but while they are
flustered and maddened by the body (echontas
de tȇn tou sȏmatos ptoiȇsin kai manian), not even his father Cronos himself
would suffice (oud’ an ho Kronos dunaito ho patȇr) to keep them with
him (sunkatechein hautȏi) in his
far-famed chains (en tois desmois dȇsas
tois autou legomenois).’ (Pl.Crat.
403d7-404a6, tr. Jowett)
***
Note how
freely Socrates combines references to the received mythology with his
theological speculations derived from his etymologizing; in the Cratylus he derives the name of Cronus
from to katharon kai akȇraton tou nou,
that is from ‘the pure and undefiled intellect’ (396b6-7)
***
There is a
noticeable divide in Socrates’ eulogy on Hades in the Cratylus:
Hades, who
has made the inhabitants of his realm spell-bound (katakekȇlȇsthai) by charming
them with his beautiful words, is ‘the perfect and accomplished sophist’ (kai estin ho theos teleos sophistȇs, Pl.
Crat. 403d7-e7). After reproducing
Protagoras’ oration in the Protagoras,
Socrates remarked: ‘So Protagoras concluded this lengthy exhibition of his
skill as a speaker (Prȏtagoras men
tosauta kai toiauta epideixamenos apepausato tou logou). I stayed gazing at
him, quite spellbound, for a long time (kai
egȏ epi men polun chronon kekȇlȇmenos
eti pros auton eblepon), thinking that he was going to say something more (hȏs erounta ti), and anxious to hear it (epithumȏn akouein).’ (328d3-6, tr. Taylor) – Note
that in the introductory discussion about Hades in the Cratylus the concept of ‘desire’ (epithumia) plays a
central role. The inhabitants of the underworld are bound by the desire to hear
Hades’ beautiful words. (Taylor’s ‘anxious to hear’ for Plato’s epithumȏn akouein in the Protagoras obfuscates the connection
between these two passages.)
Hades won’t
‘be with’ (suneinai) anybody while
they are in the body, and will ‘come-to-be with’ (sungignesthai) only with souls purified of all bodily desires and
evils; ‘this marks him as a philosopher (philosophou
dokei einai, 404a2, tr. Jowett)’. Note Socrates’ words at 403b5-6: ‘the
soul denuded of the body passes to him (hȇ
psuchȇ gumnȇ tou sȏmatos par’
ekeinon aperchetai)’. Denuding the soul of his interlocutors was Socrates’ constant
preoccupation (see ‘4 Socrates in Aristophanes, Plato and Xenophon’ posted on
my blog on June 3, 2016).
***
Hermogenes:
‘There is a deal of truth in what you say (Kinduneueis
ti legein, ȏ Sȏkrates).’ – Socrates: ‘Yes, Hermogenes, and the legislator
called him Hades not from the unseen, – far otherwise, but from his knowledge
of all noble things (Kai to onoma ho
Haidȇs, ȏ Hermogenes, pollou dei apo tou aїdous epȏnomasthai, alla polu mallon
apo tou panta ta kala eidenai, apo toutou hupo tou nomothetou “Haidȇs” eklȇthȇ).’
(Pl. Crat. 404a7-b4, tr. Jowett)
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